Category: The late Roman Empire

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Olybrius, one of the last Roman Emperors, was allied by marriage to Gaiseric, the Vandal King of Carthage. He tried to take power several times with Vandal support, and finally reigned for a few months in 472.

Anicius Olybrius was born in Rome, in an ancient noble family. He married Placidia, the daughter of Emperor Valentinian III, shortly before the sack of Rome by the Vandals. It is also possible that Olybrius and Placidia were only engaged and got married after Placidia returned to Rome.

In 455, Placidia was taken as a prisoner to Carthage by the Vandals, together with her sister Eudocia, who was married to Huneric, the son of the Vandal King Gaiseric. Placidia was freed in 461.

After the death of Emperor Majorian in 461, the new master of the Empire was general Ricimer, who could not become Emperor himself because of his Germanic origins. Olybrius claimed the Imperial throne. He was supported by Gaiseric, who hoped that his reign would be favorable to Vandal interests. However, Ricimer chose another Emperor, Libius Severus. Olybrius became consul in 464.

After Libius Severus died in 465, Olybrius claimed the throne again, still with Gaiseric’s support, but Anthemius was chosen instead of him. Olybrius finally succeeded in his third attempt to become Emperor, after Anthemius died in 472. Ricimer, who controlled the nomination of all Emperors since Majorian, died shortly after Olybrius’ accession to the throne.

Olybrius, through his marriage to Placidia, was the heir of the Theodosian dynasty, the last great Roman Imperial dynasty. His reign was short and uneventful. He had the reputation of being a devout Christian. The fact that the coins with his effigy show him without a spear of helmet seems to show that he didn’t have a strong interest for military affairs. Olybrius died of dropsy after four months on the throne.

The French word “olibrius”, which means a pompous and ridiculous person, comes from this Emperor’s historical reputation, due to his short reign, without any significant events.

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Zerco was a Moorish dwarf, and the slave and jester of Attila the Hun. Because his appearance was considered comical, he was used to entertain his master’s army. In this less than enviable life, Zerco managed to make himself popular with the Huns, and to transform his weakness into a strength that enabled him to take control of his destiny.

Zerco was from Mauretania. He was short, had a hunchback, twisted feet and a flat nose. Because of his appearance, he was sold as a slave for his masters’ amusement.

Zerco’s first master was the Roman general Aspar, who bought him in 432, during his military campaign against the Vandals with Bonifatius, the Roman governor of Africa. Zerco went to Constantinople with Aspar, and then accompanied his master in his military campaigns.

Around 442, Zerco was captured by the Huns. Bleda, the brother of Attila, became his new master. Bleda was so fascinated by Zerco that he took him everywhere with him. He even had a special armor made for him, that fitted his anatomy. One day, Zerco fled with other prisoners. Bleda let the others run away, but took Zerco back. When Bleda askec him why he had fled, Zerco said he wanted to find a wife, and Bleda married him to a maid of the Queen.

After Bleda died, Attila inherited Zerco. Unlike Bleda, Attila hated Zerco; but he was too popular in the army to get rid of him.

After some time, Attila offered Zerco to the Roman general Aetius, as a gift to seal a peace agreement. Aetius gave him back to his former master Aspar. However, Zerco still wished to return to the Huns. When a Roman delegation led by the diplomat and historian Priscus was sent to Attila, he asked for permission to go with them, but his request was denied. It is Priscus who mentions Zerco in his writings.

Zerco probably finished his life in Constantinople. Nothing more is known about him.

Why write about this? We strongly condemn any kind of abuse against disabled people, even more so for entertainment. However, such practices sadly existed. Mentioning it does not mean approving it. Zerco is part of the history of North Africa. As we publish this article, our hope is that his story, the dignity he found in his unhappy life, would be a source of inspiration for others.

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During the Vandal conquest of North Africa, the future Emperor Marcian was taken prisoner by the Vandals. A legend tells that the Vandal King Gaiseric predicted that he would become Emperor. In exchange for his freedom, Marcian reportedly promised never to attack the Vandals.

Context

In 429, the Vandals crossed the Gibraltar Strait and invaded North Africa. The Roman troops, led by Bonifatius, the last Roman governor of Africa, were defeated at the Battle of Calama (Guelma).

The Romans sent reinforcements in 432, led by Aspar, the commander-in-chief of the Eastern Roman Empire. Aspar, who had Germanic origins himself (Alanic through his father, and Gothic through his mother), wanted to use his affinity with the Vandals to defeat them.

Despite this, the Vandals were victorious again. It was during this campaign that the future Emperor Marcian, who was an officer in Aspar’s army, was taken prisoner.

Marcian, prisoner of the Vandals

The imprisonment of the future Emperor gave birth to a legend that has been told by several ancient authors: while Marcian was a prisoner, an eagle flew over him and covered him with its shadow, while the other prisoners were exposed to the sun. When the Vandal King Gaiseric saw this, he predicted that Marcian would become Emperor, and set him free, in exchange for the promise that he would not wage war on the Vandals when he would be on the throne.

While this story is certainly fictitious, it was part of Marcian’s Imperial propaganda when he became Emperor some 20 years later, in 450. When the Vandal King Gaiseric sacked Rome in 455, taking the wife and daughter of the Western Emperor Valentinian III as prisoners, Marcian, as the Eastern Emperor, didn’t try to defend Rome, but was content with demanding that the imprisoned ladies be set free.

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In the early 5th Century, the Roman Empire was weakened by the Barbarian invasions. Bonifatius, the last Roman governor of Africa, was an important actor of the Roman wars during these decades. His defeat against the Vandals marks the end of Roman Africa.

Context

Emperor Theodosius the Great, who is known mostly for establishing Christianity as the official religion of his Empire, died in 395. After his death, the Roman Empire was divided between his sons: Arcadius (395-408) in the East, Honorius (395-423) in the West. The two new Emperors were young and inexperienced, especially Honorius, who was only 10 years old when his father died. Stilicho, a general with Germanic origins, ensured the regency, until he was executed in 408.

At the same time, the invasions of Roman territory by foreign populations, which started in the 3rd Century, were continuing. In 406, the Vandals crossed the Rhine, entered Gaul, and devastated the country. In 409, they settled in Spain. The following year, the Goths, led by their King Alaric, sacked Rome, the Imperial capital. Galla Placidia, the Emperor’s sister, was kidnapped and forcibly married to Athaulf, Alaric’s successor.

The Roman general Constantius, who was made commander-in-chief of the Roman army in 411, led a military campaign in Gaul and Northern Spain, first against the usurper Constantine, and then against the Goths. He managed to expel the Goths out of Gaul and to free Galla Placidia. As a reward, Emperor Honorius gave him Galla Placidia as his wife, and then named him co-Emperor in 421, under the name Constantius III. He died a few months later.

Bonifatius, the last Roman governor of Africa

Bonifatius, the future last governor of Roman Africa, became known as an officer under Constantius during his campaign against the Goths. In 413, he won a victory against the Goths in Massalia; in this battle, he reportedly wounded the Gothic King Athaulf himself.

A few years later, he commanded a regiment of soldiers of Gothic origin in Africa, where he fought a Moorish revolt. In those years, he became friends with bishop Augustine of Hippo, with whom he discussed theological questions.

In 422, he was called back to the imperial court, where he got married. His wife had Gothic origins.

The same year, Bonifatius, together with another military officer, Castinus, were charged with organizing a campaign against the Vandals in Spain. Bonifatius finally didn’t take part in this campaign, because of the tension between him and Castinus. He withdrew to Africa, where he was named comes (count, governor-general) of the Roman diocese of Africa.

Emperor Honorius died in 423. As he didn’t have a son, his successor wasn’t announced right away. During the interregnum, Bonifatius’ rival Castinus proclaimed Joannes, a high official, as new Emperor. The Theodosian dynasty, led by Galla Placidia, refused this nomination. Bonifatius, loyal to the Theodosians, cut the supply of African wheat to Rome. Joannes sent troops to Africa to fight Bonifatius, but couldn’t overthrow him.

Joannes was finally defeated by the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II in 425. Valentinian III, son of Constantius II and Galla Placidia, was chosen as the new Western Emperor. As he was only 6 years old, his mother Galla Placidia ensured the regency. Bonifatius was rewarded for his loyalty to the Theodosian dynasty: this was the zenith of his career.

However, Bonifatius would quickly fall into disfavor: two years later, in 427, he was accused of plotting to form his own Empire in Africa. Galla Placidia summoned him to the Imperial court to answer for these accusations, but Bonifatius refused to go. Galla Placidia then sent an army against him. After two years of fighting, Bonifatius could finally prove that the accusations against him were false, thus regaining the Empress’ favour.

In 429, the Vandals crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and invaded Africa. Some sources claim that Bonifatius himself invited the Vandals into Africa, to avenge himself from the Imperial family. In 430, the Roman troops, led by Bonifatius, were defeated at the Battle of Calama (Guelma). After another defeat in 432, Bonifatius was relieved of his function. The Vandals conquered Carthage in 439: Roman domination over North Africa was ended.

Back in Italy, Bonifatius was charged by Galla Placidia with confronting the powerful Roman general Aetius, who was threatening revolt. Aetius, a former ally of Castinus and Joannes, also stood behind the accusations against Bonifatius when he was governor of Africa. Bonifatius was victorious, but he was wounded to death in battle. He died close to the end of the year 432.

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Marcellinus of Carthage was a Roman administrator of the early 5th Century, who served under Emperor Honorius. In 411, he was sent to Carthage, to lead a public conference destined to solve the Donatist controversy. In Africa, he met the bishop Augustine of Hippo, and they became close friends. He was finally executed in 413, under false accusations of revolt.

Flavius Marcellinus was born in Toledo, Spain, in a Roman aristocratic family. After his studies, he started a career in Roman administration, that led him to become a tribune and, later, Secretary of the State. In a newly Christianized Empire, Marcellinus was a devout Christian, interested in theological questions. His wife was called Anapsychia.

At this time, the Church in North Africa had been deeply divided by the Donatist controversy for about a century. In 411, Emperor Honorius decided to organize a conference in Carthage, in order to settle this matter once and for all. Marcellinus was sent by the Emperor to lead this conference. He was certainly chosen for his theological expertise.

In front of 286 Catholic and 279 Donatist bishops who met to debate over their disagreements, Marcellinus clearly expressed the Emperor’s position: the Donatists were heretics, and needed to return to the official Church; the object of the conference was to discuss the conditions of their return. The detailed script of the discussions still exists today. After long and fierce debates, Marcellinus decreed that the Donatist bishops who agreed to rejoin the Catholic Church could keep their bishoprics and places of worship, but that those who refused would be imprisoned.

The Roman army put this judgment into execution with great severity: the persecutions against the Donatists who refused to submit were so violent that even Augustine of Hippo, the leader of the Catholics at the conference, protested. Marcellinus remained in Carthage, to assist his brother Apringius, who had been named proconsul of Africa, in the trials against the Donatists who had been arrested.

During his years in Africa, Marcellinus became friends with the bishop Augustine of Hippo. They discussed theology, and Augustine encouraged Marcellinus to show clemency towards the Donatists. Augustine dedicated several of his writings to Marcellinus, including the first three books of The City of God.

Marcellinus’ career came to an abrupt end in 413, after the revolt of Heraclianus, the governor of Africa: Marcellinus and his brother Apringius were falsely accused by the Donatists of supporting Heraclianus. Marcellinus was sentenced to death and executed. The following year, the Emperor acknowledged his innocence.

The death of Marcellinus had a strong impact on Augustine of Hippo, who pleaded in vain for the Roman authorities to spare his friend’s life. After his execution, Augustine became much more wary of political power, and more skeptical about the alliance between the Christian Church and the Empire, which had become more and more intertwined in his lifetime.

Marcellinus is considered as a martyr by the Catholic Church.

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At the beginning of the 5th Century, the Roman Empire was weakened by the Barbarian invasions. During the reign of Emperor Honorius, the governor of Africa, Heraclianus, revolted and claimed the Imperial throne.

Context

Emperor Theodosius the Great, who is known mostly for establishing Christianity as the official religion of his Empire, died in 395. After his death, the Roman Empire was divided between his sons: Arcadius (395-408) in the East, Honorius (395-423) in the West. The two new Emperors were young and inexperienced, especially Honorius, who was only 10 years old when his father died. Stilicho, a general with Vandal origins, ensured the regency.

At the same time, the invasions of Roman territory by foreign populations, which started in the 3rd Century, were continuing. In 403, the Goths, led by their new King Alaric, invaded Italy. In 406, a confederation of Germanic tribes, led by the Vandals, crossed the Rhine, entered Gaul, and devastated the country.

Next to these invasions, the Empire was also facing internal revolts. In 407, Constantine, a Roman soldier based in Britain, proclaimed himself Emperor and established his power in Gaul, where he fought the Barbarians who were settled there.

Stilicho, the most powerful Roman general, failed to quash Constantine’s revolt, which was even gaining popularity in Gaul. His failure enabled his enemies, who had long been jealous of his influence, to prepare a plot against him. Stilicho was executed in 408. The military officer in charge of his execution was called Heraclianus.

Heraclianus governor of Africa

As a reward, Emperor Honorius named Heraclianus comes Africae, governor-general of the diocese of Africa, which included all Roman provinces in North Africa. He succeeded Bathanarius, the brother-in-law of Stilicho, who was also executed.

After Stilicho’s death, unrest broke out in the whole Empire, with mass massacres of the families of foederati – Barbarian warriors integrated into the Roman army, like Stilicho’s father. The survivors fled to Alaric, the King of the Goths, to seek his protection, thus enlarging the ranks of his army.

In 409-410, Priscus Attalus was proclaimed Emperor instead of Honorius, with Alaric’s support. Heraclianus remained loyal to Honorius and cut the supply of African wheat to the city of Rome, where Priscus Attalus was established. A few months later, Priscus Attalus was overthrown by Alaric, after refusing to let Alaric lead a campaign against Heraclianus in Africa. After Priscus Attalus’ fall, Alaric’s army sacked Rome.

The Christian author Jerome of Stridon claims that Heraclianus mistreated Roman nobles who fled to Carthage during Priscus Attalus’ usurpation. Jerome described Heraclianus as a drunkard and a corrupt man. His description is certainly exaggerated, but probably contains a part of truth.

It was also during Heraclianus’ mandate as a governor that the Donatist controversy came to a final resolution: in 411, Emperor Honorius sent his emissary Marcellinus to Carthage, to lead a public conference opposing Catholic and Donatist bishops. At the end of this conference, the Donatists were condemned.

Heraclianus’ revolt

Late 412, Emperor Honorius named Heraclianus consul for the year 413. However, before even taking this function, Heraclianus revolted and proclaimed himself Emperor. His motivations are difficult to understand, as he was at the peak of his career. It is possible that he felt threatened by the growing power of Constantius, the new commander of the Roman army, whom he saw as a rival.

Heraclianus started by cutting the supply of African wheat to Rome, and to Alaric’s troops, which were based in Gaul, close to Massalia. He then assembled a fleet to invade Italy.

Heraclianus landed in Italy in March 413. Constantius sent an army to meet him. Heraclianus was defeated, and fled to Carthage, where he was killed. According to one version, Heraclianus was so scared by the size of the enemy army that he abandoned his troops.

Later on

The defeat of Heraclianus’ revolt allowed Constantius to concentrate on fighting the Goths, until he succeeded in forcing them out of Gaul. In 421, Honorius named him co-Emperor. He also married Galla Placidia, the Emperor’s sister. Their son Valentinian III became Emperor after Honorius died.

Marcellinus was falsely accused by the Donatists of supporting Heraclianus’ revolt, sentenced to death and executed. The bishop Augustine of Hippo pleaded in vain for the Roman authorities to spare his friend’s life.

Bonifatius, an officer of Constantius during his campaign against the Goths, later became the last governor of Roman Africa, before the region was conquered by the Vandals.