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Christianity in North Africa, The Byzantines in North Africa

The Three Chapter Controversy: a North African religious controversy

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Around 10 years after the Byzantine reconquest of North Africa, the Christian Church underwent a strong controversy, after the Byzantine Emperor Justinian decided to condemn three religious writings. The North African church leaders played an important role in this controversy, defending the condemned writings and rejecting Imperial interference in church affairs.

Context

Council of Chalcedon

These times were characterized by tensions between the official Church and the Miaphysite doctrine, which had been condemned as heretical by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, but was still the majority view in the Eastern parts of the Empire, especially Egypt and Syria. Emperor Justinian supported the official doctrine, while his Empress Theodora supported the Miaphysites; it is possible that their opposition was only staged to push both factions to compromise.

In 544, Emperor Justinian, in an effort to reconcile Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians, decided to condemn three writings by the Syriac Christian theologians Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus and Ibas of Edessa. His motivations were more political than theological: the three authors were hostile to Miaphysitism, and the Emperor was hoping that by condemning them, he could convince the Miaphysites to return to the official church.

The controversy

The bishops who depended the most on Imperial power, especially the Patriarch Mennas of Constantinople, accepted the Emperors’s position. The Latin bishops stood strong in their refusal to let the Emperor dictate their theology. The resistance was led by the bishop Dacius of Milan, who was in Constantinople when the controversy broke out.

Facundus of Hermiane – Image created by ChatGPT

North African bishops and other church leaders got involved in the controversy, resolutely defending the condemned writings. Bishop Facundus of Hermiane (Bled Hammiane), who was also in Constantinople at the start of the controversy, wrote a long argumentation, in which he admits that the condemned writings do contain errors, but argues that this is not enough to condemn them. He reminds his readers that Cyprian of Carthage defended the re-baptism of heretics, a position now condemned by the Church, yet nobody would condemn Cyprian!

Facundus was not the only African who took a stand against the Imperial decision. Ferrandus of Carthage, a Carthaginian deacon, considered as one of the most influential theologians of his time, also opposed the condemnation of the Three Chapters, arguing that as the condemned writings had been accepted by the Council of Chalcedon, condemning them meant condemning the council! Another African bishop, Pontianus, wrote a letter to the Emperor, asking him to revoke his decision. Bishop Liberatus of Carthage, while too old to play an active role in the debates himself, wrote a history of the Monophysite and Nestorian controversy, through which he seeks to demonstrate that the condemnation of the Three Chapters was illegitimate.

In 548, Pope Vigilius was forced to leave Rome and come to Constantinople, where he gave in to the pressure to accept the Emperor’s position. In 550, the Arshbishop Reparatus of Carthage summoned a Council of North African bishops, which condemned Vigilius’ position and broke communion with the Church of Rome. The following year, Reparatus of Carthage was convened to Constantinople, together with the bishops Primasius of Hadrumetum (Sousse), Firmus of Tipasa and Verecundus of Junga (Younga, Sfax province). Together, they supported Pope Vigilius when he recognized his mistake. However, Primasius of Hadrametum ended up accepting the Emperor’s position, out of personal ambition: he wanted to become Metropolitan of Byzacene (at the head of all the bishops in the region).

Victor of Tunnuna – Image created by ChatGPT

Unlike the Italian bishops, who were not subjects of the Byzantine Emperor, the African bishops were under the direct authority of the Emperor, which made it risky for them to oppose him. After his defense of the Three Chapters was published, Facundus of Hermiane was forced to flee Constantinople and go into hiding. Another African bishop, Victor of Tunnuna, was imprisoned for refusing to submit to the Imperial edict. While in prison, he wrote a sequel to the Chronicle by Julius Africanus. He died in prison, and is considered as a martyr.

The Byzantines in North Africa

Olbia: a Libyan city rebuilt by the Byzantines

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During the 6th Century, Olbia, a Cyrenaican city that had been destroyed by the Vandals, was rebuilt by the Byzantines as a new city. The modern name of Olbia is Qasr Libya, after the castle that was built there at the beginning of the Islamic era. Of the old Byzantine city, only two churches are left, and one of them contains some of the most beautiful mosaics in the world.

Mosaic commemorating the city’s re-foundation

The ancient city of Olbia was founded in Antiquity, by Greeks from Cyrenaica. It was located between Barca (Marj) and Balagrae (Bayda). Its Greek name, Ὄλβια, means “happy” or “prosperous”. The city still existed during the Roman era: is was mentioned by Synesius of Cyrene.

Olbia was destroyed by the Vandals during their invasion of North Africa. What was left later faced incursions by the Laguatans, an Amazigh tribe from Cyrenaica. In 539, after the Byzantine reconquest of North Africa, Empress Theodora ordered that Olbia be rebuilt. The new city was named Theodorias, in honor of its founder.

Nowadays, this site is known as Qasr Libya (قصر ليبيا), after the castle (qasr) that was built there at the beginning of the Islamic era. Libya is a corruption of the old name Olbia, and also corresponds to the name of the country.

The only remnants of the Byzantine city that remain intact are two churches, one of which is integrated to the qasr. The other one was excavated in the 1950. Only the ground floor is left; but it contained around 50 mosaics considered among the most beautiful in the world. Those mosaics are now exposed in a museum. They represent the city’s re-foundation, together with natural landscapes and mythological scenes, all with rich Christian symbology. Two mosaics also mention the names of two successive bishops of Theodorias, Makarios and Theodoros.

Byzantine mosaics in Olbia (Source)
Greeks in North Africa

Eudoxus of Cyzicus: a Greek explorer at the service of King Bocchus of Mauretania

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Eudoxus of Cyzicus was a Greek explorer of the 2nd Century BCE, from the court of the Ptolemaic Kings of Egypt. He is mostly known as the first to sail from the Red Sea all the way to India by crossing the Ocean instead of staying along the Arabian coast, thanks to his mastery of the monsoon winds. By the end of his life, he went on an expedition to explore the African coasts, on account of King Bocchus of Mauretania. He probably died during this expedition, without reaching his goal: sailing around the African continent.

Context

The Silk Road: from Europe to India and China

The Greeks, especially from Ptolemaic Egypt, traded with India for spices and the other riches of the Orient – especially silk, a luxurious tissue produced in China. However, the Greek salesmen rarely traveled all the way to India: they stopped half-way, in Arabia, and exchanged merchandise with intermediaries in port cities like Aden in modern-day Yemen. Because of the monsoon – dangerous winds agitating the Indian Ocean – their ships didn’t dare to cross the ocean, but only sailed along the coast of the Arabian Peninsula.

Eudoxus in India

Ruins of Cyzicus, Eudoxus’ native city

Eudoxus was born around 150 BCE, in Cyzicus, a Greek city of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Around 130, he was sent as his city’s emissary for a religious festival to Alexandria, to the court of King Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Emissaries were usually elected by their fellow citizens, which shows that Eudoxus was highly respected by the inhabitants of Cyzicus. He already had a reputation as a great navigator, and was hoping to use this trip to Egypt as an opportunity to sail up the Nile.

Around the same time, an Indian sailor who had been shipwrecked in the Red Sea arrived in Alexandria. To thank the city’s inhabitants for saving him, he offered to show Greek navigators the way to India. Eudoxus of Cyzicus was chosen to lead this expedition. Some sources claim that Ptolemy VIII sent Eudoxus away to India because he was the Queen’s lover, but this is a much more recent legend.

Monsoon cloud in India

In the following years, Eudoxus of Cyzicus sailed twice from Egypt to India, down the Red Sea, and then through the Ocean, without staying along the Arabian coast. He became the first navigator in the Western world to sail the seas agitated by the formidable monsoon winds.

Possible itinerary of Eudoxus of Cyzicus

For his first trip in 118, Eudoxus received the guidance of the shipwrecked Indian sailor. He returned with a cargo of aromatic herbs and precious stones, which was seized by Ptolemy VIII at his return. His second trip, in 116, shortly after Ptolemy VIII died, was organised by Queen Cleopatra III. This time, he traveled alone.

Another Greek navigator, Hippalus, is mentioned in some sources as the first to introduce knowledge of the Indian monsoon into the Greek world. He might have been the captain of Eudoxus’ ship.

Many in Antiquity doubted Eudoxus’ travels, but nowadays, modern historians consider it very likely that they really happened.

Eudoxus travels around Africa

World map according to Eratosthenes
Phoenician ship with a horse-head on its prow

On his return way from his second trip to India, Eudoxus was pushed South by adverse winds, along the African coast, all the way to the Somali Peninsula. There, he found the remains of a wrecked ship. The local population told him this ship had come from the South. By examining the remains, especially the horse-head figure on its prow, he understood that it was a Phoenician ship from the city of Gades, Spain, that was sailing around Africa when it got shipwrecked.

Necho II

This discovery gave Eudoxus a desire to sail around Africa. Such an exploit had already been achieved several centuries earlier, by an expedition of Phoenician navigators organised by Pharaoh Necho II, but this expedition was little known at the time. Eudoxus, influenced by the works of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene, probably believed the continent to be much smaller than it really is (see map above).

Itinerary of Vasco da Gama (1497-1499) : Eudoxus’ dream?

Eudoxus might have had an even greater ambition: reaching India by sailing around the Southern tip of Africa; this way, he could escape the control of the Ptolemy, who systematically confiscated his cargo every time he returned from India. This dream would remain unaccomplished for over 1.000 years, until 15-Century Portuguese explorers sailed around the Cape of Good Hope.

Bocchus of Mauretania

Eudoxus returned to Cyzicus, where he sold all his possessions to finance his expedition. He then went to Gades, from where he started his tour of Africa, following the itinerary of Hanno the Navigator. He stopped in Mauretania, to solicit the patronage of King Bocchus (Jugurtha‘s father-in-law, who betrayed him to the Romans). Bocchus refused to support his expedition, forcing Eudoxus back to Gades.

Shortly later, Eudoxus took sea again for another expedition. The Greek historian Posidonius, who lived in Gades and recounts Eudoxus’ expeditions, has very little to say about this second attempt: he only mentions that he still hadn’t returned to Gades around the year 100. The Roman author Pliny the Elder writes that Eudoxus reached his goal, but it is much more likely that he died during this expedition.

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Amazigh kingdoms before the Roman invasion

Euphorbia, the plant discovered by Juba II

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Euphorbia is a plant from North Africa, that grows in the Atlas Mountains. Known since Antiquity, is was described by the King of Mauretania Juba II, who named it after Euphorbius, his court physician. Already at the time, it was used in medicine, for its laxative virtues. Moroccan herbalists still sell this plant today as a traditional remedy.

Euphorbia resinifera, the plant discovered by Euphorbius

Euphorbia resinifera, called daghmouss in Darija (or zaqqoum in other regions), tikiout (ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵡⵜ) in Tamazight, is a plant that grows in the Atlas Mountains, especially in the region of Beni Mellal and Azilal, in Morocco. An euphorbia shrub can grow up to 1-1.5m high in its natural habitat. It is a succulent plant, similar to cactus: its thick, fleshy stem enables it to retain water, in order to survive longer in an arid climate. In springtime, yellow flowers grow at the tip of its stem.

Juba II

Euphorbia is known since Antiquity: it was studied by Euphorbius, the Greek court physician of King Juba II of Mauretania, who discovered its medical virtues. Juba II named the plant Euphorbia, in honor of Euphorbius. He then wrote a pamphlet on this plant, describing its medical uses.

Euphorbia produces a milky latex that irritates the skin and can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea when ingested. In Antiquity, its latex was dried and used in medicine for its strong laxative virtues. It was also used as a remedy for snake bites.

The chemical component that gives the latex of euphorbia its effect was identified in the 1970s: it is called resiniferatoxin, a natural analog to capsaicin. Its potential medical applications, especially for cancer treatment, still require further study.

In traditional Amazigh medicine, euphorbia is used until today as a remedy against “bad illnesses” (el mard echine). Euphorbia honey, known as daghmouss in Morocco, is also highly popular.

The Byzantines in North Africa

Junillus Africanus: a North African in Constantinople

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After the Byzantine reconquest of North Africa, many young educated North Africans settled in Constantinople to integrate the Byzantine administration. Junillus Africanus, a North African jurist, became Emperor Justinian’s main legal counselor. As the Questor of the Palace, in charge of writing laws, he was one of the most influential figures in the Empire.

Gold coin with the effigy of Junillus Africanus

Junillus Africanus was born in North Africa during the Vandal era. His exact birthplace is unknown. He grew up in a context characterized by tension between the indigenous North African population, who spoke Latin and were Catholic Christians, and the Vandal invaders who were seeking to impose their Arian doctrine. He knew Fulgentius of Ruspe, as attested by the correspondence between this bishop and a woman from his family.

Nothing is known of his education, but he probably studied law and rhetoric, maybe in Carthage. He was also highly knowledgeable in Christian theology.

After the Byzantine reconquest of North Africa, he left his native region for a career in Constantinople. In the Imperial capital, he made himself known to the Emperor Justinian, who appreciated his talent. At the same time, he discovered the Eastern Christian tradition, which was still little known in the West. This discovery enabled him to deepen his own theological thought. He was particularly influenced by the bishop and theologian Theodore of Mopsuestia.

Insignia of the function of “Questor of the sacred palace”

In 542, he was named “Questor of the Sacred Palace”, a prestigious function that made him the Emperor’s main legal advisor, in charge of writing laws. He kept this function until his death in 549. His mandate was marked by territorial reconquest, important administrative reforms and religious controversies, like the “Three Chapters Controversy”.

The Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea wrote that Junillus was highly versed in Latin letters, but that he spoke Greek, the official language of the Byzantine Empire, very poorly, which was a problem in his function. Procopius also describes Junillus as a greedy and corrupt man, who sold imperial decrees. This description should not be taken at face value: it illustrates the Byzantine elite’s hostility to a provincial newcomer more than historical truth.

Even at the height of his responsibilities, Junillus remained very interested in theology. He even wrote a theological treatise, which he dedicated to Bishop Primasius of Hadrumetum (Sousse), whom he met in 542, when a delegation of North African bishops visited Constantinople. At this meeting, Primasius, impressed by his knowledge of Greek Christian thought, asked him who he believed was the greatest Eastern theologian. Junillus Africanus answered that it was Paul the Persian, a Syriac theologian from the School of Nisibis, who lived at the court of the Emperor of Persia. Primasius then asked him to write a book in Latin to introduce the West to this theologian.

Junillus’ theological treatise is a translation and an adaptation of Paul the Persian’s biblical exegesis. The author explains that he himself took part in a remarkable course by Paul the Persian on the Epistle to the Romans, and that he took notes, but that his heavy work load didn’t allow him to put order into his notes. He probably took part in this course before he was named Questor. Junillus’ book, later promoted by Cassiodorus whom Junilllus met in Constantinople, played a major role in familiarizing Western theologians with Eastern theological thought.

The Byzantines in North Africa

Ananeosis: the Byzantines rebuild Cyrenaica

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During the 4th and 5th Centuries, Cyrenaica was devastated by Laguatan Amazigh attacks, and then by Vandal incursions. After the Byzantine reconquest of Roman Africa, Byzantine Emperor Justinian launched a campaign to rebuild the destroyed cities, together with new fortifications to protect them. This program was called Ananeosis (Ἀνανέωσις), meaning “renewal” or “rebirth”.

Ananeosis fresco in Olbia (Qasr Libya)
Empress Theodora
Emperor Justinian

Since the beginning of his reign, in 527, Justinian wanted to rebuild Cyrenaica. In this, he was certainly encouraged by his wife, Empress Theodora, who had lived in Cyrenaica before they were married and remained very fond of the region.

Justinian started by sending new troops to Cyrenaica, either to support the Byzantine troops that were still resisting the Laguatans, or to reconquer lost territory. There were now permanent military garrisons stationed in Paraetonium (Marsa Matruh) and Antipyrgos (Tobrouk).

In 533, a revolt against the Vandals broke out in Tripolitania. Justinian sent the troops that were based in Cyrenaiqca to support the insurgents. A few months later, Byzantine general Belisarius conquered Carthage and took back control of all Vandal territory in Africa.

Byzantine fortress of Arsinoe (Source)

Meanwhile the Ananeosis program continued in Cyrenaica. The Byzantines rebuilt the cities of Ptolemais (Tolmeita), which had been destroyed by the Laguatans en 411, and Berenice (Benghazi), which had been devastated by the Vandals. They also built a military fortress in Arsinoe (Tocra), which was so strong that at the time of the Arab conquest, Apollonius, the last Byzantine governor of Cyrenaica, took refuge there.

Ruins of Boreum (Source)

Next to the rebuilding of ancient cities that had been destroyed, Justinian built a new port at Boreum (Bou Grada), next to the modern-day port city of Marsa al-Brega. Next to its two harbors, many other remains are still visible today, especially a wall surrounded by a moat, a dock, a tunnel leading from the citadel to the Eastern port, rock chambers, and a large structure which the archaeologists call “bastion”, while its use is unknown.

Byzantine church of Naustathmus (Source)

This period was also characterized by religious renewal, with the building of two monasteries and several new churches, especially in Naustathmus (Ras al-Hilal) and Erythron (El Athroun), close to Derna.

The jewel of Ananeosis was certainly the new city of Theodorias (Qasr Libya), built on the ruins of Olbia, and old Cyrenaican city that had been destroyed by the Vandals, and named in honor of its founder, Empress Theodora. A church in the city contains around fifty mosaics, considered among the most beautiful in the world.

Byzantine mosaics of Olbia (Source)

The reconstruction program also extended to Tripolitania. The Byzantine fortifications of Leptis Magna and Sabratha are still visible today.

After Justinian’s death, Cyrenaica was again largely abandoned by his successors in the face of the recurring attacks by Amazigh tribes. The region was largely depopulated at the time of the Arab conquests.

Source

Persians in North Africa

Sataspes: the Persian explorer who tried to sail around Africa

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In the 5th Century BCE, Sataspes, a nobleman from the court of Persian Emperor Xerxes I, was ordered to sail around the African continent. He crossed the Columns of Hercules, but returned without fulfilling his mission and was thus executed.

Model of Persian ship (Source)

Sataspes was a Persian nobleman, and a member of the Imperial family: his mother Atossa was the sister of Emperor Darius I. His name means “hundred horses”.

Xerxes I, the Emperor who ordered Sataspes’ expedition

During the reign of Emperor Xerxes I (486-465), Sataspes was sentenced to death for abducting and raping the daughter of the Persian general Megabyzus. However, his mother, who was the Emperor’s aunt, managed to convince Xerxes to spare Sataspes’ life. The Emperor then entrusted him a mission: like Pharaoh Necho II’s exploit over a century earlier, he was to sail all around Africa. If he failed, his death sentence would apply.

For his expedition, Sataspes recruited an Egyptian crew; at this time, Egypt was part of the Persian Empire. He crossed the Columns of Hercules (Gibraltar Straight), going in the opposite direction from Pharaoh Necho’s expedition.

However, Sataspes’ expedition did not go very far: after some time, he turned around and returned to the Columns of Hercules. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, at the farthest point he reached, he met “a race of small men, who were wearing robes of palm branches”. He probably didn’t even reach beyond the South of modern-day Morocco.

The failure of Sataspes’ expedition can be explained by the strong currents on the West African coast, which would have prevented him from going further.

On his return, Sataspes claimed that he could not accomplish his mission because his ship had stopped and would not sail further. The Emperor had him impaled.

The Byzantines in North Africa

Belisarius: the Byzantine general who reconquered North Africa

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In 533, the Byzantine Empire sent an army to Carthage to reconquer North Africa, which had then been occupied by the Vandals for close to a century. In this article, we will discover the life of Belisarius, the Byzantine general who led the reconquest of North Africa.

Cover picture: Emperor Justinian and his court – Fresco, Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy – Belisarius appears to the left of the Emperor

Belisarius was born around 500, in the Byzantine Empire, probably in modern-day Bulgaria. Nothing more is known of his origins. As a young man, he became a guard of Justinian, the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Justin I. When Justinian became Emperor, Belisarius was charged with the formation of an elite military regiment which became the core of his future army. He was part of the Emperor’s close circle.

Map of Belisarius’ campaign – Source – Click to enlarge

The zenith of Belisarius’ career came in 533, when he was sent to North Africa at the head of an army of 15.000 men, to reconquer the region from the Vandal occupiers. During this campaign, Belisarius imposed a strict discipline on his army; among other measures, he forbid the consumption of alcohol. In a few months, Belisarius’ men took control of the whole Vandal territory, without much resistance. Procopius, who was Belisarius’ secretary for this campaign, wrote a detailed historical narrative of these events.

Territories conquered by Belisarius – Red: the Byzantine Empire at the time of Justinian’s advent on the throne – Orange: the Byzantine Empire at the time of the death of Belisarius and Justinian

As a reward for his victory, Belisarius was named consul. His officer Solomon became the first governor of Byzantine Africa. Shortly after Belisarius left, a revolt broke out in North Africa. Belisarius briefly returned to the region to help fight the insurgents. The following years of his career were devoted to the reconquest of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Thanks to his campaigns, the territory of the Byzantine Empire almost doubled in his lifetime.

Close to the end of his life, Belisarius was accused of plotting against Emperor Justinian. The judge in charge of his trial was called Procopius; whether it was his former secretary or another man with the same name is unknown. He was found guilty and convicted, but was later pardoned by the Emperor. He died in March 565, a few months before Justinian.

The Byzantines in North Africa

Empress Theodora: an African at heart

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Theodora, the wife of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, lived in North Africa, in Cyrene, before she became Empress. After the reconquest of the Vandal Kingdom of Carthage by her husband, she showed great interest in this region. Several North African cities were renamed in her honor.

Origins

Theodora

The future Empress Theodora was born around 495. The place of her birth is uncertain, but she grew up in Constantinople. She was from a lowly family: her father was a bear-keeper for the Greens, one of the city’s main chariot race factions, while her mother was a dancer. After her father died, her mother was forced to send Theodora and her sisters to beg at the Hippodrome during chariot races.

As a teenager, Theodora started working as an actress at the theater. At the time, this job involved erotic performances on stage, as well as sexual services off stage. According to the Byzantine historian Procopius, she played a pornographic representation during which birds were eating grain off her nude body. Procopius gives a very crude description of her sex life, and also writes that she got pregnant several times and knew how to induce an abortion. Procopius’ version is certainly exaggerated, as he was shocked that an Empress could have such a background, but there is no doubt that she was practicing prostitution.

During these years, Theodora had a daughter, from an unknown father.

First time in Africa

When Theodora was about 16 years old, her lover Hecebolus was named governor of Cyrenaica. Theodora followed him to Cyrene, where she discovered North Africa.

Their relationship didn’t last: they split up after an argument in Africa. Theodora, deprived of all means of subsistence, went to Alexandria.

According to some sources, she met Bishop Timothy III of Alexandria and had a religious conversion experience at his contact. Timothy III was a supporter of the Miaphysite doctrine, which was considered as heretical by the official Church.

Theodora then returned to Constantinople, where she gave up her career as an actress and took up a modest lifestyle, working as a wool spinner.

Theodora becomes Empress

Justinian

Back in Constantinople, Theodora met Justinian, the son of Emperor Justin I. Justinian wanted to marry Theodora, but it was illegal for a man of his rank to marry an actress. Empress Euphemia was strongly opposed to their marriage. After Euphemia’s death, Justin I decreed a new law allowing former actresses to marry out of their rank with the Emperor’s permission, thus making Justinian and Theodora’s marriage possible.

The same law also applied to the children of former actresses, allowing Theodora’s daughter to marry a member of the Imperial family.

Justinian became Emperor in 527, at the death of his father. As Empress, Theodora was involved in the affairs of the Empire, advising her husband, and she had a strong influence on him. Her character is described as determined and vindictive, but also deeply loyal. She is considered as the most influential Empress in Byzantine history.

Together, Justinian and Theodora built many churches in Constantinople, including the most famous one: Hagia Sofia. Their reign was characterized by religious tensions between adherents of the official Chalcedonian doctrine and Miaphysites. While Justinian supported the official doctrine, Theodora supported the Miaphysites. However, most modern historians believe they were only pretending to be in opposition, in order to push both factions to compromise.

Theodora died in 548. Justinian reigned 15 more years after her death.

Theodora and Africa

In 533, Justinian reconquered the former Roman territories in North Africa, which had been occupied by the Vandals. Byzantine Africa became a private domain of the Emperor and his Empress.

Fresco commemorating the refoundation of Olbia

In 539, Theodora ordered the reconstruction of Olbia (Qasr Libya), and ancient city in Cyrenaica, which had been destroyed by the Vandals. The new city was named Theodorias, in honor of its founder. A church in the city contains around fifty mosaics, considered as the most beautiful in the world.

Another African city, Cululis (Ain Jelloula), in modern-day Tunisia, was also renamed Theodoriana, in honor of Theodora.