Category: Amazigh kingdoms before the Roman invasion

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Drusilla, daughter of Ptolemy, the last King of Mauretania, reportedly had a remarkable destiny after her father’s death. According to social media publications, she married a Roman governor, and, later, a Syrian King, becoming the Queen of a Kingdom neighboring Rome. However, the ancient sources that mention her are so rare that some historians even doubt her existence. This article sums up what we really know about this enigmatic Princess.

Cover picture: Wedding of Felix and Drusilla of Mauretania – Image created by ChatGPT

Drusilla: a Mauretanian Princess?

The Roman historian Tacitus writes that Antonius Felix, an emancipated slave of the Imperial family who became the Roman governor of Judea, “married Drusilla, granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra” (Histories, book V, 9). This passage by Tacitus is the only mention of this Drusilla. As we will see later in the article, Tacitus’ version is problematic, to the point that some modern historians believe he was mistaken.

The Roman general Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt had three children. Their daughter Cleopatra Selene married King Juba Juba II of Mauretania. Their other children probably died young and had no known descendance.

Tacitus seems to believe that Drusilla was the daughter of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene. It is however chronologically more likely that she was their granddaughter, probably the daughter of their son Ptolemy, who, after his father’s death, became the last King of Mauretania. The Latin word used by Tacitus, neptem, is usually translated by granddaughter, but can also mean a descendant in a more general sense.

At this time, several women of the Roman elite were named Drusilla, in honor of Julia Drusilla, the sister of Emperor Caligula. Julia Drusilla was Ptolemy of Mauretania’s cousin, so it would make sense for him to name his daughter after her.

Ptolemy of Mauretania was killed in the year 40 CE. After his death, Mauretania became part of the Roman Empire. If Ptolemy indeed had a daughter, she probably would have been raised in Rome, as many children of allied royal families were.

Felix: the slave who became a governor

Felix was a freedman of Emperor Claudius (or of his mother Antonia Minor, depending on the sources). Thanks to the influence of his brother Pallas, who served as secretary to the treasure during the reign of Claudius, Felix was named governor of Judea. During his mandate, he earned a reputation for cruelty and corruption: he is known especially for having the Jewish high priest Jonathan assassinated. The Roman aristocrats like Tacitus despised Felix, a former slave who reached the height of power.

How could a simple freedman have married a Princess of Mauretania? As the fallen Princess certainly lived at the Imperial court, it is possible that the Emperor himself arranged their marriage. However, this would be surprising, given their difference in social status.

On the other hand, historians agree that Felix married another Drusilla: the daugther of King Herod Agrippa of Judea. While she was already married to King Aziz of Emesa (modern-day Homs, Syria), who had converted to Judaism to marry her, Felix seduced her and convinced her to leave her husband for him. Their marriage was scandalous for both Jews and Romans.

Felix and Drusilla are actually mentioned in the Bible: after the Aposte Paul was arrested in Jerusalem for his preaching, while he was in prison awaiting his trial, the governor Felix, together with his wife, invited him to come to speak to them about his faith. Felix was mostly hoping that Paul would offer him money to free him, which he refused to do. The text mentions that Felix’ wife was Jewish, which shows that it was Drusilla of Judea, not Drusilla of Mauretania.

Felix and Drusilla had a son, Marcus Antonius Agrippa, who died in 79, in the eruption of the Vesuvius, a volcano in Southern Italy. The historian Flavius Josephus writes that he died “σὺν τῇ γυναικὶ” (sun tè gunaiki), literally “with the woman”. The most likely translation is that he died with his wife, but another possibility is that the author refers to the woman whom he previously mentions: his mother Drusilla.

A confusion by Tacitus?

How can the passage by Tacitus be harmonized with the story of Felix’ marriage to Drusilla daughter of the King of Judea? It would have been possible for Felix to marry Drusilla of Mauretania in Rome before he became governor of Judea. However, no historical source mentions that Felix was already married when he met Drusilla of Judea, or that he divorced to marry her. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, who was outraged that Drusilla abandoned her husband to marry Felix, would certainly not have omitted it if Felix had dome the same!

Another Roman historian, Suetonius, wrote that Felix “married three queens”. We don’t know exactly what he means by “queens”: it might be just an honorific title, or even a satirical use of the word – such an use was common with Suetonius.

It should also be mentioned that Drusilla of Mauretania never was a “queen”, in the strict sense: this title was given only to the sovereigns of territories recognized by Rome, while Mauretania already was a Roman province. Some even speculated that the title of “queen” means Drusilla of Mauretania must have married another king later on – Sohaemus of Emesa is often mentioned as her second husband. Again, there is absolutely nothing in the ancient sources to substantiate this.

Also, a careful examination of the sources shows that, still according to Flavius Josephus, Drusilla of Judea was promised in marriage to Ptolemy of Mauretania while she was still a child (a common practice at a time when royal marriages were mostly celebrated to seal political alliances). Their marriage never took place, because Ptolemy died while Drusilla was still too young. Flavius Josephus wrote at a time closer to the events than Tacitus, and he had close links with the royal family of Judea. His writing can thus be considered as reliable.

Given the absence of any other mention of a Mauretanian Princess named Drusilla, the most likely theory is that Tacitus mistook Drusilla of Judea for the descendant of Cleopatra and Mark Antony. His confusion can be explained by Flavius Josephus’ mention of the marriage plans between Ptolemy of Mauretania and Drusilla of Judea. It is also possible that Tacitus simply wanted to exaggerate the social contrast between Felix and his wife, by claiming an even more illustrious ancestry for her than in reality.

Zenobia, an Arabic Queen of Palmyra, in Syria, who led a revolt against Rome in the 3rd Century, claimed that she was a descendant of Cleopatra of Egypt. Some sources claim that Drusilla of Mauretania and her second husband Sohaemus of Emesa became the ancestors, not only of Zenobia, but also of Julia Domna, the Syrian wife of Emperor Septimius Severus. However, most modern historians believe that this Mauretanian Princess never existed, and that all the sources that mention her are based on Tacitus’ confusion.

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The ancient kings of Numidia had close links with Greece, especially at the time of Massinissa. Close to a century after Massinissa’s death, the inhabitants of the Greek island of Rhodes built a statue of one of his descendants, King Hiempsal II of Numidia.

Rhodes is one of the largest Greek islands. In the Hellenistic era, Rhodes was an independent kingdom and a Roman ally. The Colossus of Rhodes, a 30-meter high statue, was the biggest statue in the ancient world and one of the Seven World Wonders. Rhodes also controlled the wheat trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Cultural and trade links between Numidia and Greece are well-known. During the reign of King Massinissa, Numidia supplied wheat for free to the Greek island of Delos. To thank Massinissa, the inhabitants of Delos built a monument in his honor. Mastanabal, a son of Massinissa, studied in Greece and won the chariot race at the Panathenaic Games. Massinissa also took part, alongside his Roman allies, in their war against the Kingdom of Macedonia, thus contributing to the Roman conquest of Greece. The presence in Greece of a statue of a later Numidian king is however more surprising.

Nevertheless, an inscription that was found in 1969 in the old city of Rhodes mentions King Hiempsal II, great-grandson of Massinissa, who reigned from around 88 to 60. The inscription seems to be the base of a statue of Hiempsal II. We don’t know on what occasion the Rhodians built this statue.

This inscription, the only mention of Hiempsal II outside the Roman world, also mentions his whole genealogical line, from Massinissa to him, thus allowing us to complete and correct our knowledge of the history of the Numidian royal family.

The Greek transcription of the names of the Numidian kings in this inscription is quite surprising. Hiempsal is transcribed Ίυμψύα (Iumpsua), very different from the form usually used by Greek writers, Ίεμφάλ (Iempsal). The transcription of his father Gauda’s name is even more different: Γάος (Gaos), while the common form is Γαύδας (Gaudas).

Finally, the discovery of this inscription raises another question. The Roman historian Sallust, who wrote a book on the Jugurthine Wars, used the writings of a Hiempsal as a source on ancient Numidian history. It is usually believed that his source was Hiempsal I, grandson of Massinissa and cousin of Jugurtha, who was killed by Jugurtha. However, the fact that Hiempsal II had links with Rhodes, a major cultural center, and that the Rhodians even honored him with a statue, seems to indicate that he might have been the author of the historical books used by Sallust.

Source

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During the reign of Massinissa, Numidia massively developed its agricultural production. In 179 BCE, Massinissa even donated 100 tons of wheat do the Greek island of Delos.

During his reign, King Massinissa of Numidia developed a system of vast royal agricultural domains producing wheat on a large scale. This policy enriched his kingdom considerably, and also accelerated the sedentarisation of its population. Numidian excess production allowed it to export wheat to Rome, especially to supply the Roman army. Later on, North Africa became the bread basket of the Roman Empire.

Delos is a Greek island in the Cyclades archipelago. In Greek mythology, Delos is considered as the birthplace of the gods Apollo and Artemis, and thus as a sacred island. At the time of Massinissa, Delos, previously under Athenian authority, was independent. Like other Greek port cities, Delos was too small to produce enough wheat to feed its population, making it dependent on importation. (Source) The port of Delos also served as wheat distribution center towards the neighboring islands.

In 179, Massinissa gave the Delians around 145.000 liter of wheat – in weight, around 220.000 pounds or 100 tons. For Numidia, this was a way to dispose of its production surplus, while affirming itself as a trustworthy trade partner for its Greek allies. Contrary to what certain social network publications claim, this was not a humanitarian donation to help the island in a time of famine, but a commercial gesture: Numidia gave Delos wheat for free, but in exchange, it obtained privileged trade links with the Greek world.

To commemorate this donation of wheat, the Delians built a monument in honor of Massinissa on their island. This monument contained a statue of Massinissa, which is now lost, but its base still exist, with an inscription: “[β]ασιλέα Μασαννά[σαν] βασιλέως Γαία ‘Ερμων Σόλωνος τὸν αὑτοῦ φίλον Ἀπόλλωνι. Πολιάνθης ἐπόει.” In English: “Hermon son of Solon [dedicated the statue] of King Masannasa, son of King Gaia, his friend, to Apollo. Polianthes made it.” Hermon son of Solon was a Delian dignitary who ordered the statue. Polianthes was a well-known Delian sculptor.

Other inscriptions, on jars, describe how the wheat donated by Massinissa was sold at a low price to the inhabitants of Delos and the neighboring islands, under the supervision of a commission of three men, one of whom was Hermon son of Solon. One jar even mentions that part of the wheat was told to the island of Rhodes.

(Source)

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Since the reign of Massinissa, the Kingdom of Numidia was a loyal Roman ally. The famous Numidian cavalry, much feared around the ancient world, took part in many wars alongside the Roman army. Massinissa took part in the war between the Romans and the Kingdom of Macedonia, and thus contributed to the Roman conquest of Greece.

Context

Since the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greece was the dominant civilisation in the Mediterranean world and the Greek language had become the vernacular language in the whole region.

In the Third Century BCE, three major powers born from the division of Alexander the Great’s Empire dominated the Hellenistic world: the Kingdom of Macedonia, under the Antigonid Dynasty; Ptolemaic Egypt; and the Seleucid Empire, based in Syria. Other smaller Greek Kingdoms, like Syracuse, in Sicily, the Kingdom of Pergamon, in Asia Minor, and the island of Rhodes, survived in the shadow of those three powers.

Wars between Rome and the Greeks

Rome waged several wars against the various Greek kingdoms, that enabled it to extend Roman influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, while the Punic Wars ensured Roman domination over the Western Mediterranean.

During the Second Punic War, King Philip V of Macedonia made an alliance with Hannibal. Rome sent an army to attack the Macedonian coast: it was the First Macedonian War (214-202). The goal of the Romans was not to conquer Macedonia, but to keep Philip V busy at home so he couldn’t join forces with Hannibal.

Later on, the Romans led three further wars against the Kingdom of Macedonia (200-196, 171-168 and 150-148), as well as one against the Seleucid Empire (192-188), which had recruited Hannibal, Rome’s deadliest enemy, as military adviser. They most often intervened to support their local allies, like Pergamon and Rhodes. After each victory, they drew back, as they were not yet ready to conquer new territories.

During the Third Macedonian War (171-168), the Romans received help from their new ally: Numidia of King Massinissa.

Role of Massinissa in the Third Macedonian War

After Philip V of Macedonia died in 179, his son Perseus, who wanted to return his kingdom to its past power, led an aggressive policy against his neighbors. When he tried to assassinate King Eumenes II of Pergamon, a Roman ally, the Roman Senate declared war on Macedonia.

Numidia took part in this war alongside their Roman allies: Massinissa sent a contingent of Numidian cavalry, commanded by his son Misagenes.

Misagenes is less well-known than his brothers: we hear no more of him after his campaign in Macedonia, probably because he died shortly afterwards. He didn’t succeed his father, as he died before him. However, his engagement against Perseus in Macedonia proves him to be a worthy heir of the glorious King of Numidia. His Numidian cavalry rendered precious services to their allies, thanks to their speed, mobility, and efficiency in skirmishes.

Next to their military contribution, the Numids also supplied the Roman army in food, especially wheat, which they cultivated abundantly.

The Battle of Pydna, the decisive battle that determined the outcome of the war, involved hand-to-hand fighting between the Macedonian phalanges and the Roman legions. In such a scenario, the role of the Numidian cavalry was limited. However, the Numids played a role in the Roman victory, as scouts, and in pursuing Macedonian fugitives and preventing them from regrouping.

After the Roman victory, Macedonia was divided into four client kingdoms of Rome. The Numidian troops returned to Africa by sea, but their ships were scattered by a storm and several were shipwrecked. Misagenes himself was ill, and took refuge in Brundusium (Brindisi), Apulia, where he received a warm welcome by the Roman quaestor Stertinius, who gave him gifts and lodging.

Tributes to Massinissa and his sons

The role of the Numidian cavalry in the Roman victory was so important that a monument in honor of the sons of Massinissa was built on the Greek island of Delos. The monument is lost, but its base still exists. An incomplete inscription mentions Gulussa, another son of Massinissa, who led the Numidian army during the Third Punic War. Gulussa’s name appears in second position after a missing name. The missing name is probably his brother Misagenes, the commander of the Numidian cavalry in Macedonia. This would mean that Gulussa probably served under his elder brother’s orders – an useful experience for his future role of commander of the Numidian army after his brother died. The monument probably contained a statue of the Numidian royal family – Massinissa and his two sons – dedicated by the people of Delos. (Source)

Certain online sources mention that another statue of Misagenes was built at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, one of the most prestigious sites in ancient Greece. This statue reportedly bore the inscription : “The Amphictyons of Delphi [the religious authorities in charge of the sanctuary] honored Misagenes, son of Massinissa, in acknowledgement of his military services.” No such inscription has actually be found in Delphi. The Roman writer Plutarch mentions that Aemilius Paullus, the commander of the Roman troops in Macedonia, had a statue of himself built in Delphi, on a white marble pillar that had been prepared for a statue of his enemy Perseus. The mistaken idea of a statue of Misagenes in Delphi probably comes from a confusion between this statue of Aemilius Paullus and the monument in Delos.

Later on

The Fourth Macedonian War (150-148) was fought at the same time as the Third Punic War, against Andriscus, an usurper who wanted to reestablish the Kingdom of Macedonia. Numidia didn’t take part in this war directly, but the Numidian engagement against Carthage freed Roman troops to fight in Macedonia. This time, after their victory, the Romans took control of Macedonia.

Two years later, in 146, Rome, right after destroying Carthage, mobilised its troops against the Achaean League, a coalition of Southern Greek cities. Their victory at the Battle of Corinth enabled them to extend their domination over all of Greece, at the same time as they took over the former Carthaginian territories in Africa.

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Juba II, King of Mauretania from 25 BCE to 23 CE, was one of the most erudite kings of his time. He wrote several books on history, natural sciences, geography, grammar, and arts.

All the works of Juba II are lost, but about 100 quotes by other authors are still available. Most of these quotes can be found in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History: the author mentions Juba II 65 times as an authority. Other authors who quote Juba II are Plutarch, Athenaeus of Naucratis, the medical doctor Galen, and Dioscorides, the “father of pharmacy”.

Around 10 books written by Juba II are known. One of his main works seems to be his Όμοιότητες (Resemblances), a comparison between Greek and Roman institutions.

Euphorbos, Juba II’s Greek court doctor, discovered that a plant from the Atlas mountains has a powerful laxative effect. In 12 BCE, Roman Emperor Augustus built a statue of Antonius Musa, his court doctor and Euphorbos’ brother. Juba II reacted by naming the plant Euphorbos had discovered Euphorbia. He then wrote a pamphlet on this plant, describing its medical use.

Before (or after) his expedition to Arabia with the Roman prince Gaius Caesar, Juba II wrote a treaty On Arabia, on the region’s geography and Arabic customs. He dedicated this book to the young prince Gaius. While Roman sources claim he wrote this treaty before the expedition, to prepare Gaius for his meeting with the Arabs, modern historians believe he actually wrote it based on the information he gathered during the expedition. This book, the only one Juba II wrote in Latin, was very popular in Rome and contributed a lot to the Roman fascination for Arabia.

Juba II wrote other similar works on other world regions:  Libyca, in three books, on the history, geography and customs of North Africa, and On Assyria, in two books, on the Eastern regions of the Empire. He also wrote two books on Roman archaeology. Next to this, he translated the Carthaginian navigator Hanno’s Periplus into Latin.

Finally, he wrote a work On painting, in 8 books, a History of theater, in 17 books, and a book of Epigrams, which was quoted by Athenaeus of Naucratis.

Juba II reportedly also wrote theater plays, but no title or quote is known to us.

Juba II organised an expedition from the port of Mogador (Essaouira), to explore the Canary Islands. He gave the islands their name (Canarius, from canis, dog), because of the ferocious dogs he found there.

The Greek sophist Philostratus, writing 200 years after Juba II, tells the following anecdote: “And I have read in the discourse of Juba that elephants assist one another when they are being hunted, and that they will defend one that is exhausted, and if they can remove him out of danger, they anoint his wounds with the tears of the aloe tree, standing round him like physicians.”

Juba II’s reputation was such that a monument in his honor was erected in the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, in Athens (the ruins of this building can be seen on the cover picture of this article).

To conclude, it can be mentioned that several species of plants were named in honor of Juba II. The biologist Carl Linnaeus gave the name of Euphorbia to the whole genus of the plant named by Juba II in honor of his doctor. Another plant of the same genus was named Euphorbia regis-jubae (King Juba’s Euphorbia). Finally, several varieties of palm trees that can be found in the Canary Islands, South Africa and Chile, are named Jubaea or other related names.

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At the time when Roman imperialist ambitions became stronger and stronger, Mithridates, a king in modern-day Turkey, waged war on Rome for the control of Asia. Hiarbas, a mysterious chief who overthrew the King of Numidia, made an alliance with Mithridates to resist Roman expansion together.

Context

The Punic Wars mark the beginning of Roman imperial expansion: Rome took over Sicily after the First Punic War, Spain after the Second Punic War, and Africa (modern-day Tunisia) after the Third Punic War. At the same time, the Romans conquered Greece after their victory at the Battle of Corinth, a few months after the fall of Carthage. Roman influence was felt all the way to Asia (modern-day Turkey).

Mithridates VI Eupator, the ambitious King of Pontus (to the North of modern-day Turkey), waged three wars to oppose Roman domination in his region.

Mithridates : Rome’s deadliest enemy

King Mithridates had Persian origins, but was of Hellenistic culture. His name means “gift of Mithra”, the Persian god of the sun, while his Greek epithet Eupator means “of a noble father”. He was born in 135 BCE, in Sinope, modern-day Turkey.

Mithridates, whose father was poisoned, is famous for his habit of regularly swallowing small quantities of arsenic, in order to immunize himself in case someone tried to poison him. Since then, the method of immunization through the ingestion of small, non-lethal doses of poison is called mithridatisation (or mithridatism). Ironically, after Mithridates was defeated, his suicide attempt failed because of his immunity.

After establishing himself on his throne, Mithridates nourished the ambition of transforming his kingdom into the dominant power in Anatolia and the Black Sea area. This is when he would first be confronted with the Roman Republic, which also wanted to extend its influence in Asia.

In 89, Mithridates seized the opportunity of the Roman engagement in the Social War, in Italy, to wage war on his neighbor, King Nicomedes of Bithynia, a Roman ally. After his victory, he massacred the Roman and Italian colonists in Anatolia. The Greeks, happy to see a king who was capable of confronting Rome, joined him and welcomed his army in Greece.

Rome sent an army, led by general Sulla, to fight Mithridates. At the end of the first war between Mithridates and the Romans (88-84), Sulla managed to push Mithridates out of Greece, but Mithridates remained the master of Anatolia. In the second war (83-81), Mithridates was victorious. At the end of the third, and longest, war (73-63), the Roman army, led by Pompey (the future rival of Julius Caesar), inflicted a final defeat of Mithridates at the Battle of the Lycus (65).

After this defeat, Mithridates fled to Crimea. The following year, he wanted to launch another attack against Rome. When his son Machares, whom he had named King of the Bosporan Kingdom, refused to help him, he had him assassinated. In 63, Pharnaces, another son of Mithridates, rebelled against him. Mithridates drew back to the citadel of Panticapaeum, in Crimea, where he killed himself (he first tried to poison himself, and when the poisoning failed, he fell on his own sword).

Hiarbas : an African ally of Mithridates

At this time, Numidia was a client kingdom of Rome, governed by the descendants of Massinissa.

Around 88, King Hiempsal (son of Gauda, the brother of Jugurtha) was overthrown by Hiarbas, who reigned in his place. The origins of Hiarbas are unclear: some sources say he was the chief of the Maxitani tribe, others that he was Hiempsal’s brother, but it is more likely that he wasn’t related to the royal family. He might have had Getulian origins; the Roman poet Virgil presents him as Getulian in the Aeneid. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla in Rome, Hiarbas was supported by Marius and his supporters, while Sulla supported Hiempsal.

The Greek-Roman historian Appian, who wrote a book on the Mithridatic Wars, mentions that Mithridates sent an officer named Heraclides to Numidia, to negotiate an alliance with Hiarbas. Mithridates wanted to form a common front to oppose Roman expansion. Their anti-Roman coalition also included Sertorius, the leader of a revolt against Rome in Spain. It was a mere alliance of convenience: the three leaders had no ideological affinity.

The anti-Roman front between Mithridates, Hiempsal and Sertorius didn’t last long. After defeating his rivals in Rome, Sulla sent an army, led by Pompey, to reestablish Hiempsal as King of Numidia. What happened to Hiarbas is unknown. Sertorius continued his war against the Romans in Spain for around 10 years, with the support of Mithridates and of the revolted gladiator Spartacus, until he was finally killed.

The historians of this era wrote very little on Hiarbas, but his alliance with Mithridates seems to indicate that he was more than a simple Numidian usurper: a leader of the Numidian resistance against Roman domination, and against the pro-Roman Numidian kings. Around 20 years after Jugurtha’s uprising, his memory was still very alive, and many Numidians certainly still wished to live free of Roman law.

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At one point during his reign, Roman Emperor Augustus sent his grandson Gaius Caesar to Asia, in order to restore stability in the Eastern regions of his Empire, which were facing various crises. To accompany the young man, Augustus chose for him a team of experienced counselors, one of whom was King Juba II of Mauretania. Juba II’s participation in this expedition shows his influence on Roman affairs.

Context

Emperor Augustus didn’t have a son, which meant he had no heir according to Roman law. His only daughter Julia had two sons: Gaius and Lucius, whom Augustus adopted in order to make them his successors.

Around 4 BCE, the King of Judea Herod the Great, who was a Roman ally, died. His sons called on Rome to manage his succession.

The Roman Senate decided to favor Archelaus, one of Herod’s sons, because of his promise of a large sum of money for the Imperial treasure. When Roman troops entered Judea to raise this money, the Judean cities revolted. The Emperor was forced to call on the Roman legions based in Syria to restore order.

At the same time, King Tigranes IV of Armenia, another Roman ally, was overthrown by the Persian Emperor. To confront the Persians in Armenia, Rome needed its Syrian legions, who were already engaged in Judea.

The Emperor decided to organize a vast expedition to the East, in order to stabilize Judea and take back control of Armenia. His goal was to restore Roman domination all the way to the Euphrates. As Augustus was too old to lead such an expedition himself, he chose his grandson Gaius Caesar. The young man, who was only 18 years old, lacked experience for such a mission. To surround and advise him, the Emperor chose a team of experienced men. One of them was King Juba II of Mauretania, whom Augustus knew very well as he grew up in Rome. The choice of Juba II as an advisor to Gaius shows the high esteem in which the Emperor held him.

Gaius Caesar’s expedition

In Judea

The expedition first traveled to Syria, then Judea, where Gaius was to implement the Roman plan to share Herod the Great’s Kingdom between his sons. Archelaus obtained half of his father’s territory, while the rest was split between his brothers. This arrangement allowed Rome to restore stability in the region.

While Gaius and his companions were in Judea, the Emperor congratulated him for his decision to abstain from offering prayers to the Roman gods in Jerusalem, which the city’s Jewish population would have perceived as a provocation.

In Judea, Juba II, who was a widower since the death of his wife Cleopatra Selene, in 5 BCE, met Glaphyra, the widow of Alexander, one of Herod the Great’s sons, and she became his second wife.

In Arabia

After restoring stability in Judea, Gaius returned to Syria, to prepare the war against the Persians.

During his time in the East, he also led an expedition to Arabia. For the Romans, Arabia was the Nabataean Kingdom. The Nabataeans were an Arabic dynasty reigning over a large region that extended from Southern Syria to the Sinai Peninula and the Hejaz region; their capital was Petra, the famous rock-cut city. Gaius and his companions apparently reached the Gulf of Aqaba, to the South of modern-day Jordan.

The reasons of this expedition are unclear. At the time, the Nabataean King was Aretas IV (in Arabic Haritha حارثة), who reigned from 9 BCE to 40 CE and was a Roman ally. The expedition might have been intended to ensure the Romans of his loyalty, or to support him against an enemy, but we don’t know any more.

Before (or after) this expedition, Juba II wrote a treaty On Arabia, on the region’s geography and Arabic customs. He dedicated this book to the young prince Gaius. While Roman sources claim he wrote this treaty before the expedition, to prepare Gaius for his meeting with the Arabs, modern historians believe he actually wrote it based on the information he gathered during the expedition. This book, the only one Juba II wrote in Latin, was very popular in Rome and contributed a lot to the Roman fascination for Arabia.

In Armenia

After returning from Arabia, Gaius and his companions continued preparing for the war against the Persians. In 1 CE, the Persian Emperor, who was not ready to fight, finally agreed to give up Armenia. The Romans chose Ariobarzanes of Atropatane as the new King of Armenia.

However, while the Persians were no longer claiming Armenia, they were still opposing Roman influence by supporting an Armenian nationalist rebellion. Gaius invaded Armenia in 2 CE, to crush the rebels. The following year, the rebel chief Abaddon invited him to come to speak to him in his fortress. The invitation turned out to be a trap: Gaius was badly wounded and his companions had to carry him away. He died of his wounds a few months later, at only 23 years of age. His brother Lucius also died of illness in 2 CE, in Massalia, at age 18.

Later on

With the sudden death of Gaius and Lucius, Emperor Augustus lost his two only grandsons, whom he was preparing to succeed him.

Juba II returned to his country. We don’t know whether his new wife Glaphyra went with him; no inscription of her name was found in Mauretania. They divorced around 7 CE, and Glaphyra remarried Archelaus, son of Herod the Great.

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The Jewish community in Carthage, the largest North African city, mostly prospered during the Roman era. Its history can be divided in three parts: old Carthage, before its destruction by the Romans, the new Roman Carthage, and Carthage after the Roman era.

Old Carthage

According to the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, Jews took part in the foundation of Carthage together with the Phoenicians. The Hebrews and the Phoenicians were neighbors, and the Hebrew Bible mentions that King Solomon undertook maritime expeditions together with King Hiram of Tyre, the Phoenician city-State that founded Carthage. However, if there indeed were some Jews among the first inhabitants of Carthage, then they quickly assimilated into the Phoenician population and stopped practicing their religion.

Carthage is sometimes identified with Tarshish, a place mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible, as a trading partner of the ancient Hebrews. Tarshish most likely was actually Tartessos, in Spain. However, the Hebrew ships that traded with Tartessos certainly used the port of Carthage.

More Jews arrived in Carthage after their homeland was destroyed by the Babylonians, in 586 BCE. The Jewish community of Djerba, the oldest in North Africa, goes back to that era. While no archaeological trace of a Jewish presence in ancient Carthage has been found, most specialists agree that there likely were small Jewish communities in Carthage and other Punic cities.

New Roman Carthage

After Carthage was rebuilt by the Romans, new Jewish populations settled there, especially after Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. Second-century writings are the oldest archaeological proof of a Jewish presence in Carthage.

The Christian writer Tertullian of Carthage mentions a Jewish community in his city, which he describes as a “fountain of persecution” against Carthaginian Christians. This expression most likely refers to ideological opposition rather than violent persecution. Also, other references to the Jews by Tertullian show he still had some respect for them, for their deep faith, their moral integrity, and their refusal of idolatry.

The Talmud mentions the names of four Carthaginian rabbis. The most prominent one was Rabbi Abba. For some of these references, it is however unclear whether they actually refer to Carthage, North Africa, or to Carthago Nova (Carthagene), Spain, a city with a flourishing Jewish community.

The main archaeological discovery related to the Carthaginian Jewish community is the Gammarth necropolis, that dates back to the beginning of the 3rd Century. This necropolis contains 105 burial chambers, where up to 1.500 people could have been buried. Its Jewish identity is attested to by numerous Jewish symbols.

Carthage after the Roman era

In 439, the Vandals invaded Carthage and made it the capital of their new North African Kingdom. The Jews, who were suffering under growing restrictions in the Christian Roman Empire, supported the Vandal invasion. The Vandal Kings gave them religious freedom.

According to certain sources, after the Vandal King Gaiseric pillaged Rome in 455, he took back to Carthage the sacred utensils of the Temple of Jerusalem, that had been kept in the Roman city treasure. After the Byzantines reconquered Carthage in 533, the Roman general Belisarius had them transported to Constantinople, from where they were later send back to Jerusalem.

While the Jews enjoyed religious freedom under the Vandals, the Byzantine reconquest was the beginning of a time of persecution: their religious services were restricted and many were forced to convert to Christianity. For the Jews, and for the many Christian dissident minorities in North Africa, the Arab Muslim conquest was initially a relief.

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Numidian cavalry were feared in all the ancient world for their bravery and their efficiency as fighters. In addition to their exploits serving their country, Numidian cavalry units fought alongside the Carthaginian and Roman army. A statuette that was found in Canossa, Italy, is one of the few contemporary depictions of Numidian cavalry.

This painted terracotta statuette, 16 cm high and 23 cm large, depicts a wounded Numidian soldier, riding his galloping horse. It was originally a vase decoration. It was discovered in a tomb in Canusium (Canossa), Italy.

What makes this discovery even more remarkable is that this statuette was not found in Africa, but in Italy. The artist was certainly inspired by the Numidian cavalry that fought in Hannibal‘s army.

This statuette is now kept at the Louvre Museum, in Paris.