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Since the crises that shook the Roman Empire in the 3rd Century, Roman domination on the North African interior was fragile. Firmus, an Amazigh tribal chief, took advantage of the Romans’ weakness to rebel against them and proclaim himself King of Africa. After his death, his brother Gildo, who originally supported the Romans against Firmus, also revolted.
The children of Nubel
Flavius Nubel was a 4th-Century, Romanised and Christian Amazigh tribal chief. He was from the Jubaleni (Zouaoua) tribe, and reigned over the territory of modern-day Kabylie. His fortress, Petra (or Mlaklou), was close to Bejaia. Roman historians describe him as one of the most powerful Amazigh chiefs of his time. He was a Roman ally, and had Roman knights based in his fortress.
Nubel had several wives and seven known children. The fact that he was both a polygamist and a Christian is surprising, as polygamy was condemned by the Church. He probably converted to Christianity as an adult: baptized believers weren’t allowed to take more than one wife, but those who already had several wives at the time of their conversion could keep them. Nubel’s sons fought both alongside the Romans and against them; this family illustrates the complexity of relations between Rome and the Amazigh tribes at this time.
When Nubel died around 370, his eldest son Zammac succeeded him, but he was killed by another son, Firmus, who accused him of stealing his share of heritage.
Firmus’ uprising (370-375)
After his brother’s murder, Firmus revolted against the Romans and proclaimed himself Emperor of Africa. At the head of a dozen Amazigh tribes and two Roman legions, he took control of all Mauretania Caesariensis.
In the years before Firmus’ uprising, Romulus, the Roman comes (governor) of Africa, had committed extortion against the African cities, by forcing them to pay a protection tax against the attacks by Amazigh tribes. Roman Emperor Valentinian was now forced to take action both against Firmus and against his own comes. He sent his general Theodosius the Elder (the father of the future Emperor Theodosius) to depose Romulus. Firmus first adopted a conciliatory attitude, and seemed ready to find an agreement with the Romans, but then, he tried to assassinate Theodosius, was discovered, fled, and restarted his uprising.
Firmus’ uprising was a family affair: Firmus had the support of his brothers Mazuca and Dius, and his sister Cyria, while two other brothers, Gildo and Mascezel, fought against him alongside the Romans.
Firmus also enjoyed the support of the Donatists, a North African Christian movement that was considered heretical by the official church, as he protected the Donatists against persecution.
The Romans were afraid of having to fight another long and bloody guerrilla war, like their wars against Jugurtha and Tacfarinas. However, Theodosius led an efficient campaign: after battling and defeating a tribal confederation led by Firmus’ sister Cyria, close to Castellum Tingitanum (Chlef), he moved into the desert with a light infantry column, forcing Firmus to flee from tribe to tribe.
In 374, Firmus besieged the city of Tipasa, but couldn’t take it. According to legend, he entered a chapel dedicated to Saint-Salsa, a young Christian girl who had been killed for her faith in Tipasa, to ask for her blessing. However, his prayers were turned down. In his anger, he allegedly hit the martyr’s tomb with his lance.
After his defeat at Tipasa, Firmus fled to the Hodna Mountains. After a short time, as he was informed that one of his allies, Igmazen, the chief of the Isaflenses tribe, had betrayed him, he killed himself to avoid being captured. He died close to Auzia (Sour el Ghozlane). His body was given over to Theodosius by Igmazen.
Theodosius, the victorious Roman general, settled in Carthage. After Emperor Valentinian’s death, he was executed in 376, for unknown reasons. His son Theodosius became Emperor in 379.
Gildo’s uprising
The two youngest brothers of Firmus, Gildo and Mascezel, took Theodosius’ side against Firmus. In 385, the new Emperor Theodosius chose Gildo as the new comes of Roman Africa, to thank him for supporting his father. Gildo built close relations with the Roman aristocracy: his daughter married the nephew of Empress Flacilla. He governed Africa with a large degree of independence.
However, his relationship with Emperor Theodosius started to deteriorate after he refused to support him against the usurper Eugenius. After Theodosius died, in 395, the Empire was divided between his two sons: Honorius, in the West, and Arcadius, in the East. Two years later, Gildo revolted against Honorius and proclaimed his support for Arcadius, thus attaching Africa to the Eastern Roman Empire. He was supported by the Donatist bishop Optatus of Thamugadi (Tmgad), who was the philosophical influence behind his political movement. Gildo also put in place a blockade to prevent the provision of African grain to Rome.
In spring 398, the Romans sent an army against him, led by his brother Mascezel. Gildo mobilized the Roman forces in Numidia and called on the Amazigh tribes, but he was easily defeated after his Roman troops abandoned him. He was captured at Theveste (Tebessa) and executed at Thabraca (Tabarka).
Mascezel, the last son of Nubel, was honored by the Romans for restoring their domination over Africa. He settled in Rome, where he was assassinated by the imperial regent Stilicho, who was jealous of his popularity.
